Posts Tagged ‘Price Increases’

The Wage-Price Spiral

Thursday, April 14th, 2011


Some people like to blame big business for inflation; others like to blame labor unions. Both of these views, referred to earlier as “villain theories,” are overly simplistic. It seems to be more correct to say that, rather than one or the other, it is most often the combination of big business and labor unions that generates large wage and price increases. It is often in industries where there are only a few large corporations and strong labor unions (such as steel, automobiles, steel products, machinery, rubber, petroleum, pulp and paper, electrical apparatus, tobacco, beverages and so on – a major portion of the economy) that bargaining between union and employers results in above-average wage increases. In turn, these cause upward pressures on costs and prices – the wage-price spiral – where wages and prices chase each other upward.

Often, when labor unions press for higher wages, large corporations may decide to yield in large part to the union demands and raise prices, with all major firms in the industry acting together, to cover the additional labor costs. This approach is especially likely when the economy is booming, so that a strike would be particularly costly in terms of lost business. Also, during a boom, it is easier for businesses to raise prices, as consumers are less resistant to price increases. Thus, the wage increase is the reason given by the industry for the price increase. But, with many prices rising in this way, these price increases cause labor unions to demand more wage increases – as a result, wages and prices chase each other upward, in a spiral. As stated earlier, the wage-price spiral tends to be particularly rapid during periods of economic prosperity, when large corporations are less resistant to union wage demands and consumers are less resistant to price boosts. On the other hand, the spiral usually tends to slow down during recessions, when sluggish demand makes major price increases more difficult, forcing employers in turn to resist union wage demands more strongly. Recessions, however, are far from a complete cure for this cost-push inflation, because some businesses possess enough power over their prices to continue to raise them despite sluggish demand, to meet certain profit targets. Thus, the wage-price spiral not only aggravates inflation during boom periods, but also helps to keep inflation going (although at slower rates) during economic slowdowns.

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The Nature and Causes of Inflation

Thursday, March 24th, 2011


Developments, profits and wages both rise greatly, with the consumer paying the tab through much higher prices of $0.60 per kilogram. While sales of bejuniaberries will be somewhat lower at this higher price, the monopoly producer is in a position to hold down the output of berries, thus keeping the price at $0.60. When price increases originate in this way in the monopoly power of producers (either workers or businesses or both), the result is called cost-push inflation.

Obviously, there are two quite different problems here – demand-pull forces in one case, and cost-push forces in the other. Yet, they both can cause the same problem – rising prices and wages. Our examples have applied to increases in the price of a single product – bejuniaberries. Now, we will apply these two basic concepts – demand-pull and cost-push - to the more complex problem of inflation, in which the prices of goods and services in general are rising.

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Canadian Microeconomics: Problems and Policies

Thursday, October 28th, 2010


Obviously, it is of great importance that the Bomber’s management know the elasticity of the demand for their tickets. However, in the real world, sellers do not have neat and precise demand schedules to guide them in their pricing decisions. While the market research departments of larger corporations may expend considerable effort in attempts to estimate the elasticity of demand for their products, many smaller businesses operate on a more or less trial-and-error basis in this area, gaining a rough idea of the elasticity of demand by “testing the market” with small price increases or reductions. This does not mean that sellers operate in the dark in their pricing decisions. Obviously, the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries had a reasonable understanding that, in the 1970′s, the industrialized nation’s demand for oil was quite inelastic. Small retailers sense clearly that if their prices rise above those of their competitors, the demand for their products will be quite elastic. Similarly, discount retailers operate on the basis that at least a certain segment of consumers is quite sensitive to prices.

In a similar way, elasticity of demand influences the ability of workers to increase their wages. For instance, the demand for certain highly skilled workers, such as computer programmers, is highly inelastic. Such work has to be done, and there is no substitute way of doing it, Consequently, such workers are in an excellent position to bargain for higher wages – which they have been able to do. Others, however, are not in such a fortunate position. The services of hairdressers, for example, are not only not really a necessity for many people, but also there are substitutes available – people can do their own hair or even buy wigs. As a result, the demand for the services of hairdressers is quite elastic, making it much more difficult for them to raise their incomes in step with other people’s wages.

Elasticity of demand is also an important consideration underlying the taxation policies of governments. Three of the most heavily taxed products are liquor, tobacco and gasoline. Moral and conservation considerations aside, one factor underlying these products being singled out for exceptionally high taxes is the fact that the demand for all three is inelastic: sales (and tax revenues) hold up quite well even after tax increases have raised their prices considerably. there is little to be said for such heavy taxes on products whose demand is elastic, as sales would fall drastically, devastating those industries (not to mention reducing government tax revenues.)

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The Nature of Supply

Friday, August 13th, 2010


Finally, as with elasticity of demand, elasticity of supply tends to increase over a period of time. When the price of the product first increases, it may be impossible to increase the quantity supplied for a while. However, given more time, producers are often able to increase the quantity supplied in response to price increases. The difference between elasticity of supply in the short run and in the long run is illustrated in Figure 7-10, with the supply becoming much more elastic in the long run. What is the actual difference between the short run and the long run? For plastic toys, it may be a matter of days before production can be increased significantly; for annual agricultural products, up to a year. For higher oil prices to stimulate increased exploration, development and production of oil on a large scale, ten to fifteen years are required.

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Chapter Summary

Thursday, August 5th, 2010


  1. In competitive industries, the nature of supply is such that increases in the price of a product will cause increases in the quantity supplied.
  2. Increases in supply will shift the supply curve to the right, while decreases in supply will shift the curve to the left.
  3. If the quantity supplied does not increase significantly in response to a price increase, supply is “inelastic,” while supply is “elastic” if price increases cause large increases in the quantity supplied.
  4. In competitive markets, supply and demand interact freely to determine the equilibrium price and quantity, which will change as supply and/or demand change.

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Early Signs of Recovery in the Crucial American Economy ?

Wednesday, July 29th, 2009


After a plunge lasting three years, houses have finally become cheap enough to lure buyers. That, in turn, is stabilizing prices, generating hope that the real estate market is beginning to recover.

Eight cities, including Chicago, Cleveland, Denver and San Francisco, showed price increases in May, up from four in April and one in March, according to data released Tuesday. Two other cities, Charlotte, N.C., and New York, were flat.

For the first time since early 2007, a composite index of 20 major cities was virtually flat, instead of down.

“We’ve found the bottom,” said Mark Fleming, chief economist for First American CoreLogic, a data firm.

The release of the surprisingly strong Case-Shiller Price Index, compiled by Standard & Poor’s, followed earlier reports that sales of existing homes rose last month for the third consecutive time, while sales of new homes rose in June by the largest percentage in eight years.

All of these improvements are tentative, and come after a relentless decline that knocked more than half the value off houses in the worst-hit cities.

Some skeptics say they believe the market is merely pausing before it resumes falling and that much of the life in the market is coming from speculators. Even the most enthusiastic analysts acknowledge that rising unemployment, another leap in foreclosures or a significant jump in interest rates could snuff out progress.

Still, hope is growing in some quarters that the worst has passed.

“Recession is over, economy is recovering — let’s look forward and stop the backward-looking focus,” John E. Silvia, the Wells Fargo chief economist, wrote Tuesday in a research note.

Kirit Shah decided to look forward a few weeks ago. A retired forensic chemist for the New York Police Department, he closed on a house in Royal Palm Beach, Fla.

Mr. Shah was not dissuaded when the salesman at K. Hovnanian Homes told him the five-bedroom place had been empty since it was finished three years ago. “It was waiting for me,” said Mr. Shah, 64. “I’m on a lakefront. I never dreamed I would be on a lakefront. I’m within walking distance of a swimming pool.”

But the thing he likes best is this: he paid $260,000 for the five-bedroom house, half of what that model was fetching during the boom. “An excellent deal,” he said. “Plus I got a good rate on my mortgage, under 5 percent.”

Turning markets are full of uncertainty. If Mr. Shah was one reason new home sales were up 11 percent in June from May, it is unclear just how many others like him are out there.

Brad Hunter, chief economist for Metrostudy, a research firm, said the new home numbers appeared to illustrate less a return of buyers like Mr. Shah and more a resurgence of investors and speculators. Metrostudy’s own data showed that the number of buyers during the second quarter who actually moved into their new house declined 2.6 percent.

“Investors are turning right around and putting the houses on the market for sale or for rent,” Mr. Hunter said. “What appears to have been an absorption of excess inventory can be just a changing of ownership of that inventory.”

The good news in the Case-Shiller index, the most widely watched source of price information about the housing market, is equally provisionary. Tracking only large urban areas, the monthly index does not represent the country as a whole.

The Case-Shiller figures released Tuesday showed May prices were down 17.1 compared with May 2008. As bad as that may sound, it was the fourth consecutive month that price declines slowed — a step in the right direction, but perhaps not cause for widespread celebration.

More attention was focused on the news that, when May was compared with April, the price index for 20 major cities showed a half-percent gain. It was the first month-over-month increase in the index in 34 months.

“It is very possible that years from now we will say that April 2009 was the trough in home prices,” said Maureen Maitland, vice president for index services at Standard & Poor’s.

When the numbers were adjusted for seasonal factors, however — the usual way housing figures are presented — the slight gain disappeared and the index was essentially flat. Half of the cities showed continued declines.

One reason the market is perking up in some places, real estate agents say, is the encouragement offered by such measures as the first time buyer’s tax credit of $8,000.

All the more reason, said the National Association of Realtors, to not only extend the credit but expand it. The association is lobbying for the current credit, which expires in December, to be replaced with a $15,000 credit for all buyers.

“This is a relatively low-cost way to keep the housing market moving forward,” said Paul Bishop, the association’s managing director of research.

Another reason for the market’s resurgence is the prevalence of foreclosures, which make up about a third of all existing home sales. In some troubled regions, agents say they cannot remember the last transaction that did not involve a bank disposing of a property.

These communities are not yet showing any improvement in prices. Las Vegas was the worst-performing city in the May Case-Shiller index, falling 2.6 percent. Prices have fallen there by a third in the last year.

“The mom and pop that work at the Hilton can now afford a home here again,” said Justin Pechonis, a Las Vegas real estate agent. “Las Vegas is a great place to buy now.” But not from him. Sickened by seeing so many clients foreclosed on, he is getting out of the business. He now drives a taxi.

All this uncertainty breeds a hesitancy that seems to show up in nearly every sale, especially at the higher end of the market. When Margot and Pascal Lalonde decided in April to sell their two-bedroom condominium in the North End of Boston, they methodically quizzed six experienced agents about a good price.

List it for under $500,000 unless you want to be here for months, said one agent. Two others said they should demand $675,000. The other three were in between.

“In a market with so few sales, no one knows what to do,” said Ms. Lalonde, a consultant.

After 80 days on the market and two small price reductions, the condo is now under contract for $550,000. The buyers examined the apartment six times. The Lalondes, who are moving to Short Hills, N.J., expect to be no less careful when they buy.

http://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/29/business/economy/29housing.html?_r=1&th&emc=th

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